Causes and Treatments of Dengue fever

Causes and Treatments of Dengue fever Abstract Dengue fever is caused by positive-stranded RNA virus of the family Flaviviridae; genus  Flavivirus. Dengue virus is transmitted to humans by a mosquito vector Aedes aegypti belonging to genus Aedes of family Culicideae. 50 -100 million peoples are affected by dengue virus . Indian scientists have develop a vaccine for the prevention of the dengue fever. Dengue Virus Genome Contain 10 Viral Protein C,prM,E,NS1.NS2A,NS2B,NS3,NS4A,NS4B,NS5. vector population suppression ,replacement are genetic approaches for control of dengue. In the population suppression vector number is reduced to minimize disease transmission and population replacement of wild-type vector was replaced with genetically modified vector incapable of transmitting the disease. Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) is a particular type and environmentally benign way to suppress the insect population, it is based on collective farming, and radiation-mediated sterilization, and large number of male insects are release. The rel ease of insects carrying a dominant lethal (RIDL) offers a resolution to many of the weaknesses of traditional SIT which has narrow its application in mosquitoes while sustaining the efficacy ecologically friendly and specific types. RNA interference is a mechanism of gene control sequence after transcriptional selectively. RNA viruses Interference (RNAi) pathway is one of the most critical components of the innate immune system of insects that can frustrate a variety of RNA virus such as flavivirus. From all the genetic based method RIDL techniques is most advance. Introduction: Dengue fever is a viral disease transmitted by the rapid development of Aedes aegypti. (McCall and Kittayapong 2006) originally innate to West Africa and spread in the whole world (Antonelli, Clayton et al.) 50 -100 million peoples are affected by dengue virus (Wilke and Marrelli 2012). Dengue virus belongs to the Flaviviridae family. Dengue virus has four major serotypes but antigenically distinct single stranded RNA viruses . The four serotypes of dengue viruses cause disease. The severe form of the disease, dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF) and dengue shock syndrome (DHF / DSS), can lead to internal bleeding and even death. (Malavige, Fernando et al. 2004; Olson, Alphey et al. 2006) There is no specific therapeutic drug available for dengue fever. Indian scientists have develop a vaccine for the prevention of the dengue fever animal trials of this vaccine have yielded good results but it is not yet commercialize. By Using yeast pastoris Pichia they have created a non-infectious dengue fever virus like particles made of only large DENV protein envelope to active virus-specific immunity. (Thisyakorn 2013). Dengue virus is 50-nm containing lipid membrane.180 identical copies of envelop protein is present at the surface of viral membrane short transmembrane segment. The virus genome is of about 11000 bases that translates into a single large polyprotein that is cleaved into 3 structural and 7 non-structural genes and short non-coding regions is also present on both the 5 and 3 ends The structural proteins are the capsid (C) protein, the envelope (E) glycoprotein and the membrane (M) protein. (Alcaraz-Estrada, Yocupicio-Monroy et al. 2010) (Nukui, Tajima et al. 2006) The increase of vectors in world is reason of emergence of diseases in new areas. therefore, there is need to control mosquito. Bed nets, space spraying are largely ineffective against this day biting mosquito. Therefore, there is a need to develop useful strategy to overcome dengue fever. Dengue control can be reduced or elimination of the vector population. The population vector can be reduced or eliminated based on genetic methods. There are two strategic objectives to control dengue by genetically modified mosquitoes.(McCall and Kittayapong 2006; Olson, Alphey et al. 2006) vector population suppression population replacement. In the population suppression vector number is reduced to minimize disease transmission and population replacement of wild-type vector was replaced with genetically modified vector incapable of transmitting the disease.(Antonelli, Clayton et al.) suppression techniques and replacement of population are not mutually exclusive and can be implemented in conjunction with other approaches. (Olson, Alphey et al. 2006; Organization 2009) For suppression of the vector population SIT (sterile insect technique) SIT is a specific control environment of the species method in which large numbers of sterile males are release these mate with wild female reduces the reproductive capacity of mosquito. (Coleman and Alphey 2004; Helinski, El-Sayed et al. 2006) SIT mosquito control approaches have been tense and still planned .Reduction mating competitiveness, and sterile female does not reduce the population ,fertility of irradiated males residual is the limitation of the approaches to mosquito control SIT. In SIT male mosquitoes are about liberation are not taking blood meals, and lethality performance so early larval death is density dependent reduction occur. (Yakob, Alphey et al. 2008; de Valdez, Nimmo et al. 2011; Lacroix, McKemey et al. 2012) RIDL (Release of Insects carrying a Dominant Lethal) strategy to reduce these limitations by recombinant DNA technology. In RIDL male n female mosquitoes are genetically modified approaches. (Coleman and Alphey 2004; Atkinson, Su et al. 2007; Phuc, Andreasen et al. 2007) OX513A RIDL bisex is a strain. The males are released to mate with wild females. The offspring of these mating die due to late larvae or pupae. Thus the target population can be reduced. (Wallace 2013) In female transgenic mosquitoes OX3604C that genes are present to conduct flightless female-tetracycline-repressible phenotype. flightless females can not mate with a male. (de Valdez, Nimmo et al. 2011; McGraw and ONeill 2013) And for substituting additional vector population or foreign genes are inserted to prevent the transmission vector of the disease. Foreign gene can be a gene Antipathogen, or a combination of transgenic approaches that will reduce or eliminate the transmission of disease from vectors to human.(Basu and Bhattacharya 2014) Genetic approaches leading to vector population suppression: GMV-based development of Sterile-Insect Technique (SIT): The sterile insect technique (SIT) is a specific method of species and environmentally benign control the insect population that relies on mass rearing and release of sterile insects.(Wilke and Marrelli 2012) These released insects compete for mates with wild females. Wild female pairing to a sterile male has no or fewer children, so that the population tends to decrease. If enough sterile insects are released for a sufficient period, the target population is controlled or even eradicated locally(Wallace 2013). SIT has been used successfully for over 50 years to control the entire area and / or elimination of several important agricultural pests and disease vectors, including the Mediterranean fruit fly, screwworm. (Coleman and Alphey 2004)Although conducted a series of tests in the 1970s, with some success, there is today no SIT programs on large-scale operation against mosquito species. (Yakob, Alphey et al. 2008; Lacroix, McKemey et al. 2012; Mwasunda October, 2012) Ae. aegypti is a, mosquito species fit for mass rearing. This species also appears to be reasonably uniform over large areas, without the problems of sub-species and barriers to mating. SIT has many advantages as compare to traditional strategies: it is species specific and to stay away from The harmful effects of pesticides on non-target species. The mating behavior of male insects is highly efficient as a substitute of relying on Human rights activists. wild insects Density are condensed that’s why it works better (Coleman and Alphey 2004) LIMITATION of SIT: The main problem of SIT is the loss of competitiveness mating for the wild type due to sterilization of insects by irradiation. For mosquitoes, releasing only male is considered essential, since the sterile females bite and can thus transmit the disease, while male mosquitoes do not bite. So SIT including large-scale, gender-based separation . pupal size can constantly give people male-only population for release. A key difficulty for mosquito SIT is sterilization. Irradiation of pupae appear to harm insects; irradiation as adults is less harmful but operationally much harder. Some trials used sterilizing chemicals such as thiotepa, which was effective for sterilization, but led to trace contamination with this mutagenic chemical. Another problem for mosquito SIT relates to the biology of the mosquito population. Unlike agricultural pests against which the main SIT programs are directed at present, mosquito populations can be regulated primarily by density-dependent effects, in which a very fruitful population is maintained at a level stable for limited resource constraints, others problems of SIT is fitness costs and operational difficulty of irradiation.(Coleman and Alphey 2004; Olson, Alphey et al. 2006; Wilke and Marrelli 2012) Release of Insects Carrying a Dominant Lethal Gene: Insects are designed to carry a dominant lethal genetic system can be used to replace the need for radiation sterilization in a similar SIT program. In this RIDL is replaced engineered lethal dominant. At the same time RIDL and SIT, and some or all of the descendants of people die as a result of the release of inheriting one or more dominant lethal mutations, so that the population tends to decline. (Atkinson, Su et al. 2007; Yakob, Alphey et al. 2008; Massonnet-Bruneel, Corre-Catelin et al. 2013) Mechanism: Male mosquitoes have developed genetically modified to contain lethal gene, in order to combat the spread of dengue fever. LA513 is piggyBac transposon-based non-independent from 8.4 kilobytes. Insert LA513 transposon within aeydes mosquitoes by genetic engineering techniques to produce toxins in the larvae of mosquitoes stage under normal condition, and thus cause the death of the larva. Transposon LA513 mainly containing DsRed2 gene that is to engage in the modified identify genetically by red fluorescence due to the expression of that gene. and tTAV gene (tetracycline -repressible transcriptional activator) tTAV gene is under the control of its binding site, titO, and minimal promoter of Drosophila HSP70, and 3 UTR sequence of the fruit fly FS (1) K10. tTAV bind with its binding site titOs and gives a very high level of expression of tTAV which is toxic under normal conditions. In The presence of tetracycline tTAV connect with them. This model does not bind tTAV with titO and do not even lead to the expression of more tTAV therefore this construction gives a very high level expression of tTAV in the absence of tetracycline, but gives low expression in the presence of tetracycline. The high level expression of tTAV may be due to the interaction with the VP16 domain transcription factor that provides a key to the building of this deadly system. (Massonnet-Bruneel, Corre-Catelin et al. 2013) When genetically modified mosquitoes are released in the wild and mate with wild female offspring to inherit this trait lethality. The resulting offspring die before reaching the age of majority and the local mosquito swarms fall.(McGraw and ONeill 2013) Oxitec is a British company is working to find innovative solutions to control insects using biotechnology and genetics in advance (called RIDL) placed Egyptian genetically modified Aedes this product and is named as a OX513A bisex RIDL strain. (Massonnet-Bruneel, Corre-Catelin et al. 2013) Aeydes mosquito, one of the most important carrier of the dengue fever,and decreased by 80% in the 2010 trial of these genetically modified mosquitoes in the Cayman Islands. Using genetically modified male aegypti we can reduce or eliminate the population of mosquitoes that specie, and thus we can control the transmission of dengue virus to humans, which causes dengue fever. Population replacement techniques: Population replacement techniques involve the insertion of additional or foreign genes to prevent the mosquitoes from transmitting the disease. The techniques may include inserting an antipathogen gene, an immune system upregulator, or a combination of transgenic approaches that will ultimately result in the reduction or elimination of disease transmission from mosquito to human. To assess whether a mosquito has reduced disease transmission capability, the virus titer in the experimental transgenic mosquitoes midgut and salivary glands can be measured and compared to a wildtype control. At least three genetic-transformation systems have been described and used successfully in Ae. aegypti to generate GMVs. These transformation systems are based on the Class II TEs Mos1 (Mariner), Hermes and piggyBac . Mos1 and piggyBac are the most commonly used TEs mos1 for generating GMVs. Evidence of rnai mechanism in mosquitoes: List the RNAs strategy Interference with the recurrence of dengue virus can operate Effective in mosquitoes and mosquito cells. The first evidence is recombinant Sindbis viruses having DENV-2-prM sequence was transformed in to in adult female mosquitoes. Sindbis viruses is single-stranded RNA virus. During replication it is convert in to double stranded RNA and intermediary expressing DENV-2 prM that is activate the RNAi mechanism . Combination of DENV-2 and the recombinant SINV having DENV-2-prM sequence slabs DENV replication in mosquitoes. in mosquito cell culture Expression of a dsRNA hairpin structure is a strong Catalyst of the RNAi mechnism. 567 nucleotide of the prM sequence from DENV-2 in a sense orientation and first 290 nt repeated in antisense orientation is made hairpin structure .cloned this into plasmid after transcription DENV-2 specific dsRNA is formed that stop the DENV-2 replication. transfection of C6/36 (Aedes albopictus) with dsRNA of arbovirus genome.these are the evidence which shows that Aedes species have RNAi mechanism resemble to other organisms. RNAi Mechnism : In RNAi mechanism dsRNA is integrate in The cytoplasm of the cell. RNase III enzyme Dicer is responsible to digest dsRNA in a small interfering RNA 21-23 BP (RNAs siRNAs). These double stranded siRNAs having two nucleotides over hangs at both of the 3’ends. Then siRNAs is unwounded in a single stranded by the enzyme complex called the RNA-induced silencing complex,(RISC).one strand act as RISC-targeting co-factor. siRNA having RISC binds with complementary mRNA. cleavage in the middle of the siRNA binding region by RISC is occur .then mRNA Is degrade by natural endogenous mechanisms. RNAi mechanism for dengue control: Sà ¡nchez-Vargas and collegues proved that RNAi paly a important role in the reduction of dengue infection. AAV (adeno-associated virus )siRNA infected the dendritic cells and decrease Dengue infection in human. Mosquito cell line transformed culture (C6 / 36, A. albopictus) by way of plasmid Which contain the inverted sequence of PRM gene of dengue And form dsRNA 290-BP. These transformed cells contain resistance to the dengue virus 2. When these cells are infected with dengue virus -2 viral RAN collection is not occur. These transformed mosquitoes cells Containing all the machines of RNAi. This finding proved that RNAi play a important role in reduction of dengue virus 2. Transposon ,that contain the inverted repeat sequence of prM gene of dengue virus is transformed in mosquito embryo along with carboxypeptidase A Promoter .after the intake of bloodmeal of mosquitoes dsRNA 578-BP is produce. When genetically modified Mosquito Carb 77 stuck With DENV2 having bloodmeal dsRNA is expressed along virus replication. thus preserving the Spreading of the virus from the host to the salivary Glands. RNAi mechanism is accountable for the resistance of DENV2. SiRNA-mediated silencing of receptors and Facility clathrin mediated endocytosis can prevent entry of Dengue virus .The proliferation of HepG2 cells, reducing the Virus. inhibit the dengue fever to develop into serious forms .Specified cellular genes involved in endocytosis operations And the dynamics of the cell structure, the task of infection DENV. SiRNA directing genes linked with clathrin mediated endocytosis. Villegas-Rosales et al. projected three siRNAs that have ability to silence the four DENV serotypes genome By pointing NS4B and NS5 sequences . SiRNA along with RNAi self-processing machinery have a role in the preclusion of unadorned dengue infection. In the development of new therepuetical drugs RNAI can play an imporatn role .

Causes and Treatments of Dengue fever

Causes and Treatments of Dengue fever Abstract Dengue fever is caused by positive-stranded RNA virus of the family Flaviviridae; genus  Flavivirus. Dengue virus is transmitted to humans by a mosquito vector Aedes aegypti belonging to genus Aedes of family Culicideae. 50 -100 million peoples are affected by dengue virus . Indian scientists have develop a vaccine for the prevention of the dengue fever. Dengue Virus Genome Contain 10 Viral Protein C,prM,E,NS1.NS2A,NS2B,NS3,NS4A,NS4B,NS5. vector population suppression ,replacement are genetic approaches for control of dengue. In the population suppression vector number is reduced to minimize disease transmission and population replacement of wild-type vector was replaced with genetically modified vector incapable of transmitting the disease. Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) is a particular type and environmentally benign way to suppress the insect population, it is based on collective farming, and radiation-mediated sterilization, and large number of male insects are release. The rel ease of insects carrying a dominant lethal (RIDL) offers a resolution to many of the weaknesses of traditional SIT which has narrow its application in mosquitoes while sustaining the efficacy ecologically friendly and specific types. RNA interference is a mechanism of gene control sequence after transcriptional selectively. RNA viruses Interference (RNAi) pathway is one of the most critical components of the innate immune system of insects that can frustrate a variety of RNA virus such as flavivirus. From all the genetic based method RIDL techniques is most advance. Introduction: Dengue fever is a viral disease transmitted by the rapid development of Aedes aegypti. (McCall and Kittayapong 2006) originally innate to West Africa and spread in the whole world (Antonelli, Clayton et al.) 50 -100 million peoples are affected by dengue virus (Wilke and Marrelli 2012). Dengue virus belongs to the Flaviviridae family. Dengue virus has four major serotypes but antigenically distinct single stranded RNA viruses . The four serotypes of dengue viruses cause disease. The severe form of the disease, dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF) and dengue shock syndrome (DHF / DSS), can lead to internal bleeding and even death. (Malavige, Fernando et al. 2004; Olson, Alphey et al. 2006) There is no specific therapeutic drug available for dengue fever. Indian scientists have develop a vaccine for the prevention of the dengue fever animal trials of this vaccine have yielded good results but it is not yet commercialize. By Using yeast pastoris Pichia they have created a non-infectious dengue fever virus like particles made of only large DENV protein envelope to active virus-specific immunity. (Thisyakorn 2013). Dengue virus is 50-nm containing lipid membrane.180 identical copies of envelop protein is present at the surface of viral membrane short transmembrane segment. The virus genome is of about 11000 bases that translates into a single large polyprotein that is cleaved into 3 structural and 7 non-structural genes and short non-coding regions is also present on both the 5 and 3 ends The structural proteins are the capsid (C) protein, the envelope (E) glycoprotein and the membrane (M) protein. (Alcaraz-Estrada, Yocupicio-Monroy et al. 2010) (Nukui, Tajima et al. 2006) The increase of vectors in world is reason of emergence of diseases in new areas. therefore, there is need to control mosquito. Bed nets, space spraying are largely ineffective against this day biting mosquito. Therefore, there is a need to develop useful strategy to overcome dengue fever. Dengue control can be reduced or elimination of the vector population. The population vector can be reduced or eliminated based on genetic methods. There are two strategic objectives to control dengue by genetically modified mosquitoes.(McCall and Kittayapong 2006; Olson, Alphey et al. 2006) vector population suppression population replacement. In the population suppression vector number is reduced to minimize disease transmission and population replacement of wild-type vector was replaced with genetically modified vector incapable of transmitting the disease.(Antonelli, Clayton et al.) suppression techniques and replacement of population are not mutually exclusive and can be implemented in conjunction with other approaches. (Olson, Alphey et al. 2006; Organization 2009) For suppression of the vector population SIT (sterile insect technique) SIT is a specific control environment of the species method in which large numbers of sterile males are release these mate with wild female reduces the reproductive capacity of mosquito. (Coleman and Alphey 2004; Helinski, El-Sayed et al. 2006) SIT mosquito control approaches have been tense and still planned .Reduction mating competitiveness, and sterile female does not reduce the population ,fertility of irradiated males residual is the limitation of the approaches to mosquito control SIT. In SIT male mosquitoes are about liberation are not taking blood meals, and lethality performance so early larval death is density dependent reduction occur. (Yakob, Alphey et al. 2008; de Valdez, Nimmo et al. 2011; Lacroix, McKemey et al. 2012) RIDL (Release of Insects carrying a Dominant Lethal) strategy to reduce these limitations by recombinant DNA technology. In RIDL male n female mosquitoes are genetically modified approaches. (Coleman and Alphey 2004; Atkinson, Su et al. 2007; Phuc, Andreasen et al. 2007) OX513A RIDL bisex is a strain. The males are released to mate with wild females. The offspring of these mating die due to late larvae or pupae. Thus the target population can be reduced. (Wallace 2013) In female transgenic mosquitoes OX3604C that genes are present to conduct flightless female-tetracycline-repressible phenotype. flightless females can not mate with a male. (de Valdez, Nimmo et al. 2011; McGraw and ONeill 2013) And for substituting additional vector population or foreign genes are inserted to prevent the transmission vector of the disease. Foreign gene can be a gene Antipathogen, or a combination of transgenic approaches that will reduce or eliminate the transmission of disease from vectors to human.(Basu and Bhattacharya 2014) Genetic approaches leading to vector population suppression: GMV-based development of Sterile-Insect Technique (SIT): The sterile insect technique (SIT) is a specific method of species and environmentally benign control the insect population that relies on mass rearing and release of sterile insects.(Wilke and Marrelli 2012) These released insects compete for mates with wild females. Wild female pairing to a sterile male has no or fewer children, so that the population tends to decrease. If enough sterile insects are released for a sufficient period, the target population is controlled or even eradicated locally(Wallace 2013). SIT has been used successfully for over 50 years to control the entire area and / or elimination of several important agricultural pests and disease vectors, including the Mediterranean fruit fly, screwworm. (Coleman and Alphey 2004)Although conducted a series of tests in the 1970s, with some success, there is today no SIT programs on large-scale operation against mosquito species. (Yakob, Alphey et al. 2008; Lacroix, McKemey et al. 2012; Mwasunda October, 2012) Ae. aegypti is a, mosquito species fit for mass rearing. This species also appears to be reasonably uniform over large areas, without the problems of sub-species and barriers to mating. SIT has many advantages as compare to traditional strategies: it is species specific and to stay away from The harmful effects of pesticides on non-target species. The mating behavior of male insects is highly efficient as a substitute of relying on Human rights activists. wild insects Density are condensed that’s why it works better (Coleman and Alphey 2004) LIMITATION of SIT: The main problem of SIT is the loss of competitiveness mating for the wild type due to sterilization of insects by irradiation. For mosquitoes, releasing only male is considered essential, since the sterile females bite and can thus transmit the disease, while male mosquitoes do not bite. So SIT including large-scale, gender-based separation . pupal size can constantly give people male-only population for release. A key difficulty for mosquito SIT is sterilization. Irradiation of pupae appear to harm insects; irradiation as adults is less harmful but operationally much harder. Some trials used sterilizing chemicals such as thiotepa, which was effective for sterilization, but led to trace contamination with this mutagenic chemical. Another problem for mosquito SIT relates to the biology of the mosquito population. Unlike agricultural pests against which the main SIT programs are directed at present, mosquito populations can be regulated primarily by density-dependent effects, in which a very fruitful population is maintained at a level stable for limited resource constraints, others problems of SIT is fitness costs and operational difficulty of irradiation.(Coleman and Alphey 2004; Olson, Alphey et al. 2006; Wilke and Marrelli 2012) Release of Insects Carrying a Dominant Lethal Gene: Insects are designed to carry a dominant lethal genetic system can be used to replace the need for radiation sterilization in a similar SIT program. In this RIDL is replaced engineered lethal dominant. At the same time RIDL and SIT, and some or all of the descendants of people die as a result of the release of inheriting one or more dominant lethal mutations, so that the population tends to decline. (Atkinson, Su et al. 2007; Yakob, Alphey et al. 2008; Massonnet-Bruneel, Corre-Catelin et al. 2013) Mechanism: Male mosquitoes have developed genetically modified to contain lethal gene, in order to combat the spread of dengue fever. LA513 is piggyBac transposon-based non-independent from 8.4 kilobytes. Insert LA513 transposon within aeydes mosquitoes by genetic engineering techniques to produce toxins in the larvae of mosquitoes stage under normal condition, and thus cause the death of the larva. Transposon LA513 mainly containing DsRed2 gene that is to engage in the modified identify genetically by red fluorescence due to the expression of that gene. and tTAV gene (tetracycline -repressible transcriptional activator) tTAV gene is under the control of its binding site, titO, and minimal promoter of Drosophila HSP70, and 3 UTR sequence of the fruit fly FS (1) K10. tTAV bind with its binding site titOs and gives a very high level of expression of tTAV which is toxic under normal conditions. In The presence of tetracycline tTAV connect with them. This model does not bind tTAV with titO and do not even lead to the expression of more tTAV therefore this construction gives a very high level expression of tTAV in the absence of tetracycline, but gives low expression in the presence of tetracycline. The high level expression of tTAV may be due to the interaction with the VP16 domain transcription factor that provides a key to the building of this deadly system. (Massonnet-Bruneel, Corre-Catelin et al. 2013) When genetically modified mosquitoes are released in the wild and mate with wild female offspring to inherit this trait lethality. The resulting offspring die before reaching the age of majority and the local mosquito swarms fall.(McGraw and ONeill 2013) Oxitec is a British company is working to find innovative solutions to control insects using biotechnology and genetics in advance (called RIDL) placed Egyptian genetically modified Aedes this product and is named as a OX513A bisex RIDL strain. (Massonnet-Bruneel, Corre-Catelin et al. 2013) Aeydes mosquito, one of the most important carrier of the dengue fever,and decreased by 80% in the 2010 trial of these genetically modified mosquitoes in the Cayman Islands. Using genetically modified male aegypti we can reduce or eliminate the population of mosquitoes that specie, and thus we can control the transmission of dengue virus to humans, which causes dengue fever. Population replacement techniques: Population replacement techniques involve the insertion of additional or foreign genes to prevent the mosquitoes from transmitting the disease. The techniques may include inserting an antipathogen gene, an immune system upregulator, or a combination of transgenic approaches that will ultimately result in the reduction or elimination of disease transmission from mosquito to human. To assess whether a mosquito has reduced disease transmission capability, the virus titer in the experimental transgenic mosquitoes midgut and salivary glands can be measured and compared to a wildtype control. At least three genetic-transformation systems have been described and used successfully in Ae. aegypti to generate GMVs. These transformation systems are based on the Class II TEs Mos1 (Mariner), Hermes and piggyBac . Mos1 and piggyBac are the most commonly used TEs mos1 for generating GMVs. Evidence of rnai mechanism in mosquitoes: List the RNAs strategy Interference with the recurrence of dengue virus can operate Effective in mosquitoes and mosquito cells. The first evidence is recombinant Sindbis viruses having DENV-2-prM sequence was transformed in to in adult female mosquitoes. Sindbis viruses is single-stranded RNA virus. During replication it is convert in to double stranded RNA and intermediary expressing DENV-2 prM that is activate the RNAi mechanism . Combination of DENV-2 and the recombinant SINV having DENV-2-prM sequence slabs DENV replication in mosquitoes. in mosquito cell culture Expression of a dsRNA hairpin structure is a strong Catalyst of the RNAi mechnism. 567 nucleotide of the prM sequence from DENV-2 in a sense orientation and first 290 nt repeated in antisense orientation is made hairpin structure .cloned this into plasmid after transcription DENV-2 specific dsRNA is formed that stop the DENV-2 replication. transfection of C6/36 (Aedes albopictus) with dsRNA of arbovirus genome.these are the evidence which shows that Aedes species have RNAi mechanism resemble to other organisms. RNAi Mechnism : In RNAi mechanism dsRNA is integrate in The cytoplasm of the cell. RNase III enzyme Dicer is responsible to digest dsRNA in a small interfering RNA 21-23 BP (RNAs siRNAs). These double stranded siRNAs having two nucleotides over hangs at both of the 3’ends. Then siRNAs is unwounded in a single stranded by the enzyme complex called the RNA-induced silencing complex,(RISC).one strand act as RISC-targeting co-factor. siRNA having RISC binds with complementary mRNA. cleavage in the middle of the siRNA binding region by RISC is occur .then mRNA Is degrade by natural endogenous mechanisms. RNAi mechanism for dengue control: Sà ¡nchez-Vargas and collegues proved that RNAi paly a important role in the reduction of dengue infection. AAV (adeno-associated virus )siRNA infected the dendritic cells and decrease Dengue infection in human. Mosquito cell line transformed culture (C6 / 36, A. albopictus) by way of plasmid Which contain the inverted sequence of PRM gene of dengue And form dsRNA 290-BP. These transformed cells contain resistance to the dengue virus 2. When these cells are infected with dengue virus -2 viral RAN collection is not occur. These transformed mosquitoes cells Containing all the machines of RNAi. This finding proved that RNAi play a important role in reduction of dengue virus 2. Transposon ,that contain the inverted repeat sequence of prM gene of dengue virus is transformed in mosquito embryo along with carboxypeptidase A Promoter .after the intake of bloodmeal of mosquitoes dsRNA 578-BP is produce. When genetically modified Mosquito Carb 77 stuck With DENV2 having bloodmeal dsRNA is expressed along virus replication. thus preserving the Spreading of the virus from the host to the salivary Glands. RNAi mechanism is accountable for the resistance of DENV2. SiRNA-mediated silencing of receptors and Facility clathrin mediated endocytosis can prevent entry of Dengue virus .The proliferation of HepG2 cells, reducing the Virus. inhibit the dengue fever to develop into serious forms .Specified cellular genes involved in endocytosis operations And the dynamics of the cell structure, the task of infection DENV. SiRNA directing genes linked with clathrin mediated endocytosis. Villegas-Rosales et al. projected three siRNAs that have ability to silence the four DENV serotypes genome By pointing NS4B and NS5 sequences . SiRNA along with RNAi self-processing machinery have a role in the preclusion of unadorned dengue infection. In the development of new therepuetical drugs RNAI can play an imporatn role .

Causes and Treatments of Dengue fever

Causes and Treatments of Dengue fever Abstract Dengue fever is caused by positive-stranded RNA virus of the family Flaviviridae; genus  Flavivirus. Dengue virus is transmitted to humans by a mosquito vector Aedes aegypti belonging to genus Aedes of family Culicideae. 50 -100 million peoples are affected by dengue virus . Indian scientists have develop a vaccine for the prevention of the dengue fever. Dengue Virus Genome Contain 10 Viral Protein C,prM,E,NS1.NS2A,NS2B,NS3,NS4A,NS4B,NS5. vector population suppression ,replacement are genetic approaches for control of dengue. In the population suppression vector number is reduced to minimize disease transmission and population replacement of wild-type vector was replaced with genetically modified vector incapable of transmitting the disease. Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) is a particular type and environmentally benign way to suppress the insect population, it is based on collective farming, and radiation-mediated sterilization, and large number of male insects are release. The rel ease of insects carrying a dominant lethal (RIDL) offers a resolution to many of the weaknesses of traditional SIT which has narrow its application in mosquitoes while sustaining the efficacy ecologically friendly and specific types. RNA interference is a mechanism of gene control sequence after transcriptional selectively. RNA viruses Interference (RNAi) pathway is one of the most critical components of the innate immune system of insects that can frustrate a variety of RNA virus such as flavivirus. From all the genetic based method RIDL techniques is most advance. Introduction: Dengue fever is a viral disease transmitted by the rapid development of Aedes aegypti. (McCall and Kittayapong 2006) originally innate to West Africa and spread in the whole world (Antonelli, Clayton et al.) 50 -100 million peoples are affected by dengue virus (Wilke and Marrelli 2012). Dengue virus belongs to the Flaviviridae family. Dengue virus has four major serotypes but antigenically distinct single stranded RNA viruses . The four serotypes of dengue viruses cause disease. The severe form of the disease, dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF) and dengue shock syndrome (DHF / DSS), can lead to internal bleeding and even death. (Malavige, Fernando et al. 2004; Olson, Alphey et al. 2006) There is no specific therapeutic drug available for dengue fever. Indian scientists have develop a vaccine for the prevention of the dengue fever animal trials of this vaccine have yielded good results but it is not yet commercialize. By Using yeast pastoris Pichia they have created a non-infectious dengue fever virus like particles made of only large DENV protein envelope to active virus-specific immunity. (Thisyakorn 2013). Dengue virus is 50-nm containing lipid membrane.180 identical copies of envelop protein is present at the surface of viral membrane short transmembrane segment. The virus genome is of about 11000 bases that translates into a single large polyprotein that is cleaved into 3 structural and 7 non-structural genes and short non-coding regions is also present on both the 5 and 3 ends The structural proteins are the capsid (C) protein, the envelope (E) glycoprotein and the membrane (M) protein. (Alcaraz-Estrada, Yocupicio-Monroy et al. 2010) (Nukui, Tajima et al. 2006) The increase of vectors in world is reason of emergence of diseases in new areas. therefore, there is need to control mosquito. Bed nets, space spraying are largely ineffective against this day biting mosquito. Therefore, there is a need to develop useful strategy to overcome dengue fever. Dengue control can be reduced or elimination of the vector population. The population vector can be reduced or eliminated based on genetic methods. There are two strategic objectives to control dengue by genetically modified mosquitoes.(McCall and Kittayapong 2006; Olson, Alphey et al. 2006) vector population suppression population replacement. In the population suppression vector number is reduced to minimize disease transmission and population replacement of wild-type vector was replaced with genetically modified vector incapable of transmitting the disease.(Antonelli, Clayton et al.) suppression techniques and replacement of population are not mutually exclusive and can be implemented in conjunction with other approaches. (Olson, Alphey et al. 2006; Organization 2009) For suppression of the vector population SIT (sterile insect technique) SIT is a specific control environment of the species method in which large numbers of sterile males are release these mate with wild female reduces the reproductive capacity of mosquito. (Coleman and Alphey 2004; Helinski, El-Sayed et al. 2006) SIT mosquito control approaches have been tense and still planned .Reduction mating competitiveness, and sterile female does not reduce the population ,fertility of irradiated males residual is the limitation of the approaches to mosquito control SIT. In SIT male mosquitoes are about liberation are not taking blood meals, and lethality performance so early larval death is density dependent reduction occur. (Yakob, Alphey et al. 2008; de Valdez, Nimmo et al. 2011; Lacroix, McKemey et al. 2012) RIDL (Release of Insects carrying a Dominant Lethal) strategy to reduce these limitations by recombinant DNA technology. In RIDL male n female mosquitoes are genetically modified approaches. (Coleman and Alphey 2004; Atkinson, Su et al. 2007; Phuc, Andreasen et al. 2007) OX513A RIDL bisex is a strain. The males are released to mate with wild females. The offspring of these mating die due to late larvae or pupae. Thus the target population can be reduced. (Wallace 2013) In female transgenic mosquitoes OX3604C that genes are present to conduct flightless female-tetracycline-repressible phenotype. flightless females can not mate with a male. (de Valdez, Nimmo et al. 2011; McGraw and ONeill 2013) And for substituting additional vector population or foreign genes are inserted to prevent the transmission vector of the disease. Foreign gene can be a gene Antipathogen, or a combination of transgenic approaches that will reduce or eliminate the transmission of disease from vectors to human.(Basu and Bhattacharya 2014) Genetic approaches leading to vector population suppression: GMV-based development of Sterile-Insect Technique (SIT): The sterile insect technique (SIT) is a specific method of species and environmentally benign control the insect population that relies on mass rearing and release of sterile insects.(Wilke and Marrelli 2012) These released insects compete for mates with wild females. Wild female pairing to a sterile male has no or fewer children, so that the population tends to decrease. If enough sterile insects are released for a sufficient period, the target population is controlled or even eradicated locally(Wallace 2013). SIT has been used successfully for over 50 years to control the entire area and / or elimination of several important agricultural pests and disease vectors, including the Mediterranean fruit fly, screwworm. (Coleman and Alphey 2004)Although conducted a series of tests in the 1970s, with some success, there is today no SIT programs on large-scale operation against mosquito species. (Yakob, Alphey et al. 2008; Lacroix, McKemey et al. 2012; Mwasunda October, 2012) Ae. aegypti is a, mosquito species fit for mass rearing. This species also appears to be reasonably uniform over large areas, without the problems of sub-species and barriers to mating. SIT has many advantages as compare to traditional strategies: it is species specific and to stay away from The harmful effects of pesticides on non-target species. The mating behavior of male insects is highly efficient as a substitute of relying on Human rights activists. wild insects Density are condensed that’s why it works better (Coleman and Alphey 2004) LIMITATION of SIT: The main problem of SIT is the loss of competitiveness mating for the wild type due to sterilization of insects by irradiation. For mosquitoes, releasing only male is considered essential, since the sterile females bite and can thus transmit the disease, while male mosquitoes do not bite. So SIT including large-scale, gender-based separation . pupal size can constantly give people male-only population for release. A key difficulty for mosquito SIT is sterilization. Irradiation of pupae appear to harm insects; irradiation as adults is less harmful but operationally much harder. Some trials used sterilizing chemicals such as thiotepa, which was effective for sterilization, but led to trace contamination with this mutagenic chemical. Another problem for mosquito SIT relates to the biology of the mosquito population. Unlike agricultural pests against which the main SIT programs are directed at present, mosquito populations can be regulated primarily by density-dependent effects, in which a very fruitful population is maintained at a level stable for limited resource constraints, others problems of SIT is fitness costs and operational difficulty of irradiation.(Coleman and Alphey 2004; Olson, Alphey et al. 2006; Wilke and Marrelli 2012) Release of Insects Carrying a Dominant Lethal Gene: Insects are designed to carry a dominant lethal genetic system can be used to replace the need for radiation sterilization in a similar SIT program. In this RIDL is replaced engineered lethal dominant. At the same time RIDL and SIT, and some or all of the descendants of people die as a result of the release of inheriting one or more dominant lethal mutations, so that the population tends to decline. (Atkinson, Su et al. 2007; Yakob, Alphey et al. 2008; Massonnet-Bruneel, Corre-Catelin et al. 2013) Mechanism: Male mosquitoes have developed genetically modified to contain lethal gene, in order to combat the spread of dengue fever. LA513 is piggyBac transposon-based non-independent from 8.4 kilobytes. Insert LA513 transposon within aeydes mosquitoes by genetic engineering techniques to produce toxins in the larvae of mosquitoes stage under normal condition, and thus cause the death of the larva. Transposon LA513 mainly containing DsRed2 gene that is to engage in the modified identify genetically by red fluorescence due to the expression of that gene. and tTAV gene (tetracycline -repressible transcriptional activator) tTAV gene is under the control of its binding site, titO, and minimal promoter of Drosophila HSP70, and 3 UTR sequence of the fruit fly FS (1) K10. tTAV bind with its binding site titOs and gives a very high level of expression of tTAV which is toxic under normal conditions. In The presence of tetracycline tTAV connect with them. This model does not bind tTAV with titO and do not even lead to the expression of more tTAV therefore this construction gives a very high level expression of tTAV in the absence of tetracycline, but gives low expression in the presence of tetracycline. The high level expression of tTAV may be due to the interaction with the VP16 domain transcription factor that provides a key to the building of this deadly system. (Massonnet-Bruneel, Corre-Catelin et al. 2013) When genetically modified mosquitoes are released in the wild and mate with wild female offspring to inherit this trait lethality. The resulting offspring die before reaching the age of majority and the local mosquito swarms fall.(McGraw and ONeill 2013) Oxitec is a British company is working to find innovative solutions to control insects using biotechnology and genetics in advance (called RIDL) placed Egyptian genetically modified Aedes this product and is named as a OX513A bisex RIDL strain. (Massonnet-Bruneel, Corre-Catelin et al. 2013) Aeydes mosquito, one of the most important carrier of the dengue fever,and decreased by 80% in the 2010 trial of these genetically modified mosquitoes in the Cayman Islands. Using genetically modified male aegypti we can reduce or eliminate the population of mosquitoes that specie, and thus we can control the transmission of dengue virus to humans, which causes dengue fever. Population replacement techniques: Population replacement techniques involve the insertion of additional or foreign genes to prevent the mosquitoes from transmitting the disease. The techniques may include inserting an antipathogen gene, an immune system upregulator, or a combination of transgenic approaches that will ultimately result in the reduction or elimination of disease transmission from mosquito to human. To assess whether a mosquito has reduced disease transmission capability, the virus titer in the experimental transgenic mosquitoes midgut and salivary glands can be measured and compared to a wildtype control. At least three genetic-transformation systems have been described and used successfully in Ae. aegypti to generate GMVs. These transformation systems are based on the Class II TEs Mos1 (Mariner), Hermes and piggyBac . Mos1 and piggyBac are the most commonly used TEs mos1 for generating GMVs. Evidence of rnai mechanism in mosquitoes: List the RNAs strategy Interference with the recurrence of dengue virus can operate Effective in mosquitoes and mosquito cells. The first evidence is recombinant Sindbis viruses having DENV-2-prM sequence was transformed in to in adult female mosquitoes. Sindbis viruses is single-stranded RNA virus. During replication it is convert in to double stranded RNA and intermediary expressing DENV-2 prM that is activate the RNAi mechanism . Combination of DENV-2 and the recombinant SINV having DENV-2-prM sequence slabs DENV replication in mosquitoes. in mosquito cell culture Expression of a dsRNA hairpin structure is a strong Catalyst of the RNAi mechnism. 567 nucleotide of the prM sequence from DENV-2 in a sense orientation and first 290 nt repeated in antisense orientation is made hairpin structure .cloned this into plasmid after transcription DENV-2 specific dsRNA is formed that stop the DENV-2 replication. transfection of C6/36 (Aedes albopictus) with dsRNA of arbovirus genome.these are the evidence which shows that Aedes species have RNAi mechanism resemble to other organisms. RNAi Mechnism : In RNAi mechanism dsRNA is integrate in The cytoplasm of the cell. RNase III enzyme Dicer is responsible to digest dsRNA in a small interfering RNA 21-23 BP (RNAs siRNAs). These double stranded siRNAs having two nucleotides over hangs at both of the 3’ends. Then siRNAs is unwounded in a single stranded by the enzyme complex called the RNA-induced silencing complex,(RISC).one strand act as RISC-targeting co-factor. siRNA having RISC binds with complementary mRNA. cleavage in the middle of the siRNA binding region by RISC is occur .then mRNA Is degrade by natural endogenous mechanisms. RNAi mechanism for dengue control: Sà ¡nchez-Vargas and collegues proved that RNAi paly a important role in the reduction of dengue infection. AAV (adeno-associated virus )siRNA infected the dendritic cells and decrease Dengue infection in human. Mosquito cell line transformed culture (C6 / 36, A. albopictus) by way of plasmid Which contain the inverted sequence of PRM gene of dengue And form dsRNA 290-BP. These transformed cells contain resistance to the dengue virus 2. When these cells are infected with dengue virus -2 viral RAN collection is not occur. These transformed mosquitoes cells Containing all the machines of RNAi. This finding proved that RNAi play a important role in reduction of dengue virus 2. Transposon ,that contain the inverted repeat sequence of prM gene of dengue virus is transformed in mosquito embryo along with carboxypeptidase A Promoter .after the intake of bloodmeal of mosquitoes dsRNA 578-BP is produce. When genetically modified Mosquito Carb 77 stuck With DENV2 having bloodmeal dsRNA is expressed along virus replication. thus preserving the Spreading of the virus from the host to the salivary Glands. RNAi mechanism is accountable for the resistance of DENV2. SiRNA-mediated silencing of receptors and Facility clathrin mediated endocytosis can prevent entry of Dengue virus .The proliferation of HepG2 cells, reducing the Virus. inhibit the dengue fever to develop into serious forms .Specified cellular genes involved in endocytosis operations And the dynamics of the cell structure, the task of infection DENV. SiRNA directing genes linked with clathrin mediated endocytosis. Villegas-Rosales et al. projected three siRNAs that have ability to silence the four DENV serotypes genome By pointing NS4B and NS5 sequences . SiRNA along with RNAi self-processing machinery have a role in the preclusion of unadorned dengue infection. In the development of new therepuetical drugs RNAI can play an imporatn role .

Nostradamus :: essays research papers

Nostradamus   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Michel De Nostradame, otherwise known as Nostradamus was born December 14, 1503. His family was of Jewish ancestry. His grandfather, Pierre de Nostradame, had settled in Provence because by the mid-1400s, many Jews had come to live there. Nostradamus' father was Jacques de Nostradame. Jacques worked as a scholary, since most people didn't know how to write he wrote things for them, from love letters to formal documents. Jacques' income provided a good home at the time. Nostradamus' earliest recollection of his home was the following:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Typical of all provenà §al homes in the sixteenth century was the room where both domestic and social life was carried on. The center and symbol of the room's activity was the great fireplace, majestic, caver-   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  nous, holding a banked fire that never went out since his mother and   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  father moved in. Shining pots and pans of brass hung low from the   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  mantle shelf. At either angle of the fireplace was an oak settle were his grandfathers liked to laze and talk when they came to visit. On the walls hung light cabinet shelves holding salt and spices.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Nostradamus had one definite brother, Cà ¨sar who wrote Histoire de Provence, a book which sustains the myth of the Nostradamus royal line. Historians think Nostradamus had three other brothers, Bertrand, Hector, and Antoine, but they are not sure and almost nothing is known about them besides their names.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Nostradamus was educated by his grandfathers. First Peyrot, who had been a great traveler, brought Nostradamus up in his home. He taught Nostradamus the basics of mathematics, Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and Astrology. After Peyrot de Nostradamus' death Nostradamus moved back in with his parents, Jacques and Reynià ¨re. It is thought that his other grandfather took over his education for a while, but the family decided to send Nostradamus to Avignon, which at that period was the center of Renaissance learning. At Avignon, Nostradamus spent many hours at University libraries. Nostradamus' biggest interest was astrology. His interest in astrology began to worry his parents, and by the advice of his grandfather he was sent to the University of Montpellier to study medicine. The University of Montpellier was regarded as second only to that of Paris in all of France. Nostradamus arrived there in 1522 at nineteen years of age. In three years he studied all the subjects needed for his bachelor's degree. He was tutored by some of the finest doctors in Europe. The process of getting a degree was far more arduous than in the present day, and lasted much longer. A successful candidate was given his license to practice by the bishop of Montpellier.

Critical Race Theory and Class Essay

The Critical Race Theory (CRT) defines a broader and more contextual way of looking at race relations, specifically in the United States, than the classical conventional civil rights perceptions of race and racism. The development of the critical race theory was in response to the increasing concern in the mid 1970s about the lethargic pace of change in laws to tackle civil rights issues and promote racial issues. â€Å"The development of critical race theory points to a new direction taken by civil rights activists in the wake of civil rights setbacks in the 1970s and 1980s when official government policy no longer supported an expansive civil rights agenda. † (Jones, 2002, pp. 1) As implied by its name, the Critical Race Theory is a critical way of looking at race relations. The Critical Race Theory looks beyond the gross violations of civil rights or instances of racial discriminations, and tries to focus on the subtle racial nuances that combine together to make up the milieu of civil rights violations in everyday life. These subtle racial nuances are termed micro-aggressions, and critical race theorists believe that it is the micro-aggressions that actually reveal the true extent of racism in the United States. â€Å"†¦everyday racism, in the form of micro-aggressions, is incessant and cumulative as practiced in everyday actions by individuals, groups, and institutional policy rules and administrative procedures† (Solorzano, 1998). The logic behind the Critical Race Theory is that while classical racism has subsided to a considerable extent, everyday racism has grown in its intensity and scope (Bell, 1992). According to the Critical Race theory, the laws and rules that are in place to curb racism apply only to the gross and extreme types of injustice and are largely ineffective in the case of micro-aggressions. Racism in its more subtle but equally detrimental and damaging form persists in the United States. â€Å"Formal equality can do little about the business-as-usual forms of racism that people of color confront every day and that account for much misery, alienation, and despair† (Parker, 2008). There are five basic tenets that guide the Critical Race Theory. First, racism is held to be a very normal, everyday phenomenon almost mundane by its frequency of occurrence. Racism is not an aberration in society, it is the rule. Racism is inherent in society. That is what makes racism so difficult to curb racism or cure society of it. The classical ideal behind ‘color blindness’, or the approach that did not take cognizance of color differences as envisioned by the civil rights movement of the 1960s is considered flawed as it makes the conventional racism rules and laws ineffective against the racism that is ingrained in the thought processes of individuals and in social structures. They are blind to discriminations against color inherent in society, and only serve to restrain the minorities in subordinate positions. The proponents of the theory believe that aggressive color-conscious efforts are required to change the present environment of racial discrimination. The second tenet of the theory is referred to as the ‘Interest Convergence’ and postulates that racism works to the advantage of both the elites and the working classes amongst the Whites, there is very little incentive or motivation amongst a large majority of the whites to curb racism. A large number of laws against racism is said to be passed only if they are found not to go against the interest of the dominant White community, and in no way deprives them of the advantages that had been accruing to them. Conversely, only those laws or rules which serve the self interests of the Whites are passed. The third very important theme of the Critical Race Theory is that race by itself has no biological, genetic or physical basis, but is largely a social construct. Race is a product of social, and it is defined by how society moulds the human mind. â€Å"Not objective, inherent, or fixed, they (races) correspond to no biological or genetic reality; rather, races are categories that society invents, manipulates, or retires when convenient. † (Delgado & Stefancic, 2000). This is because though people share certain physical and genetic traits such as hair texture and color, eye shape, average height, skin color, etc, they are mostly overridden by differences in the higher-order traits such as intelligence, behavior and personality. Society however chooses to club people into distinct racial groups, ignoring scientific facts and attributing hypothetical racial characteristics on these groups. According to the Differential Racialization perspective of the Critical Race Theory, the dominant group in a society ‘racializes’ different minority groups differently depending on changing conditions and needs. The stereotyping of the same minority group tends to vary over periods based on the requirement or utility of the group. The closely related notion of Intersectionality and Anti-essentialism in the Critical Race Theory states that every individual has multiple identities, loyalties and allegiances which could be potentially in conflict with each other. Finally, proponents of the Critical Race Theory believe in the thesis of the ‘unique voice of color’ – which states that oppressed groups, by dint of their experience of oppression are able to communicate to the dominant group matters that the dominant group may not be aware of. The ‘Legal Storytelling’ movement therefore encourages members of the oppressed groups to recount their experiences in the form of storytelling. The Critical Race Theory is a useful tool for analyzing the racial impact of laws and policies, their effectiveness and their shortcomings. Social Class and its Structure A society divides its people into distinct hierarchical groups based on their social and economic status. This hierarchical distinction or stratification of groups or individuals in any community or society is referred to as the system of social class, and each group or hierarchy within the system is known as a Social Class. Although most societies usually have some form of class structure, there are examples of societies, especially of the hunter-gatherer type, in which class distinctions are not to be found. Class is largely determined factors that influence social, economic and political status of the individual such as employment or occupation, education and qualification, wealth, ownership of property, means of production, etc. Although social class is not deemed to be hereditary, the status of the preceding generation usually influences the next generation which finds it comparatively easy to hold on to the same class or rise up to a higher class. Individuals may move from one class to the other because of change in economic, political and social status. This is known as Social Mobility. An individual experiences upward social mobility when she or he moves from a lower class to an upper class by dint of success in economic, social or political spheres; conversely, an individual experiences downward social mobility from an upper class to a lower class because of failure in economic, social or political life. There is intense debate over the theoretical definition of social class. Classes are usually identified on the basis of the most important criteria that differentiate classes in the society; the number of class hierarchies that exist, the extent to which the class structure is accorded recognition within the society. Classes are broadly defined as per the Realist approach and the Nominalist approach. A realist approach defines class in terms of distinct groups bounded by clear boundaries with which people identify themselves and adhere to. Interactions are primarily intra class. The nominalist definition of class however focuses more on the characteristics that are common to people in a given class. These characteristics are education, profession, political or social standing, etc. The nominalist class is not determined by social interactions, but by the exhibited characteristics of individuals. In whatever way we may define class, there is no contesting the fact that almost every action of an individual is influenced by class and class structure because the individual tends to behave according to the norms of the class that she or he belongs to. Class consciousness often also translates into political action. Therefore, â€Å"†¦the process of transformation of societies from one social system to another depends on the nature and dynamics of class relations and class struggles that are historically specific in accordance with a society’s dominant mode of production and its attendant superstructure. †(Berberoglu, 1994) There are different class structures in different societies. In the United States and Britain class is distinguished along economic parameters, and generically comprises the upper class, middle class and the lower class. The traditional caste system in India is based on the type of work of an individual. The kings and fighting princes belonged to the nobility, the priests, businessmen and the laborers all had their own classes. China and Japan had feudal classes. As the world is fast being transformed into a global village, traditional classes based on feudal or religious systems are changing in structure to those of economic or political classes. However, social classes retain their importance as determinants of the actions of all members in a large majority of the societies of the world. References -01 Bell, D. , A. , 1992, Faces at the bottom of the well: The Permanence of Racism. New York: Basic Books. Berberoglu, B. , 1994, Class Structure and Social Structure, Praeger Publishers, Westport. Delgado, R. , Stefancic, J. , Critical Race Theory, An Introduction, New York University Press. Jones B. , D. , 2002, Critical Race Theory: New Strategies for Civil Rights in the New Millennium, Harvard BlackLetter Law Journal, Volume 18. Parker, L. , 2008, Critical Race Theory and African Studies: Making Connections to Education, University of Illinois-Chicago Solorzano, D. , 1998, Critical race theory, racial and gender microaggressions, and the experiences of Chicana and Chicano scholars. International journal of qualitative studies in education.

Personal Statement For A Private Practice - 1383 Words

Welcome to my private practice. I believe in therapy as a confidential partnership between us as two individuals. This confidential process is one I have designed to help address your issues, worries, and more, better understand yourself, and learn effective coping strategies you can utilize in your everyday life. In order for this process to work, it will involve the sharing of sensitive, personal, and private information on your part. During the course of counseling, you may experience moments of increased anxiety or confusion. However, our goal is to achieve a positive outcome by pushing through those moments in an effort to either fix, eliminate, or process them. I am available to walk you through this process, but will not be able to†¦show more content†¦In order to be most successful, you will also need to work on things we discuss outside of sessions. You maintain the right to ask any questions or make any comments about anything that happens during our sessions. I am always willing to discuss how and why I’ve decided on the method I have, and am constantly looking for alternatives, adjustments, and more. You also maintain the right to leave, ask to be referred to another specialist, or discuss another method with myself or my office at any time. Although I do ask and recommend that you give me advanced notice, so that I may help you transition through this change. Sessions The first month of sessions will include a thorough evaluation of your needs and self. By the end of this evaluation, I will be present some initial impressions of what our time together might consist of. At that time, we will discuss your treatment goals and create a primary treatment plan. This treatment plan might change as treatment continues and changes come into play. You should evaluate this information and make your own conclusions and judgments about whether or not you feel comfortable working with this plan or myself. If you have questions about my work, it is best that we discuss them when they initially arise. If your doubts persist, I will be happy to help you set up a meeting with another mental health professional for a second opinion. Ending Sessions As mentioned above, you may endShow MoreRelatedCode Of Ethics And Ethics762 Words   |  4 PagesAlso, code of ethics serves as a formal ethics statement improving the organization’s image protecting it from lawsuits and further regulation. Code of ethics policies are designed for organizations to follow in everything they do. Employees are bound by the rules and regulations of these policies sometimes relieving organizations from unlawful lawsuits. 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